Correlated HCPS:
D2.2.6(1): Questioning to understand multiple points of view.
D2.4.1(1): How body structure aids in an organism's survival.
D2.5.1(1): Interdependence of organisms in a food web.
D2.3.2(1): Collection and uses of natural resources and its effects on the environment.
D2.4.2(2): Identifying an organism's distinguishing anatomical features.
D2.2.2(1): Interdependence of science, technology, and society.
D2.Culture.4(1): Relationship among cultural practices, perspectives, and products of other cultures.

Correlated NSES:
Structure and function in living organisms
Diversity and adaptation of organisms
Populations and ecosystems
Regulation and behavior
Science and technology in society
Populations, resources, and environments

Advanced Preparation:
General familiarity with background information available on the web.
Students will be briefed on a behind the scenes tour of Maui Ocean Center and given a strict behavior code to follow.

Procedure:
PowerPoint - Mano: Anatomy and Cultural Significance (45 min.)
The Instructor will lead students through the slides, initiating questions and providing detailed descriptions.

‘Aumakua Actuality (10 min.)
Using costumes, students will be able to define an ‘aumakua. Acting out roles, students will also gain an understanding of the relationship between the kahu mano (caretaker) and the ‘aumakua.

Mano Mana (30 min.)
Students will act out Hawaiian shark deities using props and costumes and place themselves on a giant Hawaii map in their respective trolling locations. The deities discussed are as follows: Kamohoali’i, Ka’ahupahau, Kaehuikimano-o-Pu’uloa, Kaholia-Kane, Kane-‘apua, Kewelomahamaha’i, Keali’ikau-o-Ka’u, Kua, and Kuhaimoana.

‘Ai kanaka: Emotions and Solutions (20 min.)
Students will be presented, in great detail, with an account of a local shark attack at Olowalu. A discussion of solutions will be initiated following the story with twist thrown in during the talk.

Lalani Kalalea (25 min.) - (May be used as DIVE IN!)
After explaining lalani kalalea, students will use construction paper to make a "tear-strip" picture. They may choose any background scenery, the only focus is the large aggregation of fins.

Key Vocabulary:
Ampullae of Lorenzini – tube shaped sense organs beneath the skin on a shark’s head. They can detect electricity in the water.
Apex Predator – the highest predator on the food web.
Barbells – fleshy, whisker-shaped organs on the snouts of some sharks.
Bycatch – fish and/or other marine life that are incidentally caught with the targeted species. Most of the time bycatch is discarded at sea.
Cartilage – flexible, bone-like material that makes up a shark’s skeleton.
Caudal Fin - the name for the fin at the end of a shark’s body. It swings from side to side to move the shark forward.
Crepuscular – active at dusk and dawn.
Denticles – tooth-like scales on a shark’s skin. They help sharks slide easily through water.
Dorsal fin – the name for the fin on a shark’s back, that helps stabilize the shark while swimming.
Gills – organs in a shark’s throat that help the shark to breathe.
Heterocercal – a vertical column that terminates in the upper lobe of the caudal fin of a fish. The upper lobe of the tail fin is usually larger than the lower lobe.
Lateral line – the name for a sense organ on the side of a shark’s body. It helps the shark to feel ripples in the water.
Pectoral fins – the name for the fins on the sides of a shark’s body. They tilt to steer the shark up or down in the water.
Tapetum Lucidum - a reflective layer found in the eyes of some animals that double-reflects light back into the retina to make the best use of available.

HAWAIIAN GLOSSARY
Ali’i – royal or noble person or royal group, e.g. chief, chiefess, king, queen.
‘Awa – diluted juice of the roots of the kava plant noted throughout the Pacific Islands for its mild drug-like effect.
‘Aumakua – family or personal gods.
Ho’omano – to behave like a shark; to eat ravenously; to pursue women ardently.
Kahu mano – an attendant or guardian of an individual shark that is believed to be filled with a special spirit.
Kiholo – large, mainly wooden, fishhook used for sharks and large fish.
Kupua – a demi-god or supernatural being, possessing several forms, usually human or animal.
Lalani kalalea – line of shark fins protruding above the surface of the water.
Laukahi’u – thresher shark "much hit tail."
Leiomano – a weapon or tool crafted from wood and shark teeth.
Lele wa’ – "the friendly shark" said to lean on canoe outriggers for food and company.
Mana – supernatural or divine power and authority.
Mano kanaka – a shark thought to be born of a human mother and sired by a shark god, or by a deified person whose spirit possesses a shark or turns into a shark.
Mano kihikihi – hammerhead shark "angular shark."
Mano lalakea – whitetip reef shark.
Mano pa’ele – "black smudged shark"; perhaps the blacktip reef shark or the blacktip shark.
Mano ‘ula – "red shark."
Niuhu – "a large grey man-eating shark." Referring to large, dangerous sharks i.e. tiger and great white sharks.
Palau Papa Niho Mano – war club; wooden implement with convex cutting edges.

Background:
In modern culture sharks remain a severely misunderstood species. As an apex predator they are successful hunters with highly evolved senses. After the release of the film Jaws in 1975, sharks have since been mistaken as man-eaters. Sharks, in fact, are not man-eaters, but instead evolved fish. All sharks are carnivores, though species such as the whale shark, megamouth and basking sharks feed on lesser planktonic organisms. Sharks often scavenge for dead and dying animals therefore saving energy and avoiding injury from their prey. Some shark species have evolved to actively hunt and feed on larger animals including dolphins, turtles, seals and seabirds. Humans fear sharks as they are one of the few animals that still pose threat to us.

In reality, one is more likely to be injured by a toilet than to be attacked by a shark! Shark attacks are rare and rarely fatal. Many attacks are cases of mistaken identity. Most shark attacks involve an initial inspection by the shark. The shark may, but not always, circle or even bump the prey testing for the prey’s reaction. A shark attack is defined by any contact between a human and a shark, so even a bump counts! Most people who are only bumped will have a few scrapes to show for their adventure, as the shark’s skin is as coarse as sandpaper. Even attacks that involve a bite are rarely fatal. In most cases a shark will bite down on a human and let go, almost never is a human completely consumed by a shark. Death from shark attacks generally results from blood loss, especially when a major artery is cut.

Sharks are marvels of evolution. Shark species have been on planet Earth for over 450 million years – that’s 200 million years before the dinosaurs ran rampant! Throughout this enormous span of time, sharks have undergone only a few minor modifications. Evolution has left them with extreme senses and abilities as apex predators. Sharks and humans share the same five sense, however sharks posses and additional two! The senses of sharks function in an order of maximum distance and are discussed from the furthest functioning sense to the closest.

Sharks are able to detect sound vibrations lower that 1000Hz and can hear noises from over a mile away. Some Polynesian cultures used to make shark rattles out of coconuts to bring sharks in closer for hunting. Small vibration such as dying fish and/or violent splashing can be heard by sharks. Pets should be kept out of the water as their frantic movements may attract sharks.

Most everyone is aware that sharks can smell blood from great distances. The actual fact is some sharks can detect smell at fractions of 1ppt, in other words some sharks may smell one drop of blood in an Olympic sized pool. General guidelines are to stay out of the water when bleeding or towing dead fish behind you (i.e. spear fishing). And if a shark is feeding, steer clear!

To dig deeper into the sensory realm of sharks we must explore the less obvious senses. The lateral line runs the length of the body, from head to tail. This line is covered with highly specialized cells that allow the shark to detect movements in the water near the shark. The lateral line may be compared to the hairs on our arms, whereas if something is close, but not touching, we are still able to sense the movement. With the lateral line, sharks are able to sense presence that they cannot see.

Sight follows the lateral line in strength, and under clear ocean conditions can function for approximately 30 meters. Eyes of sharks vary among species; the color can be green, brown or black. A nictitating or winking membrane protects the eyes when a shark is feeding. Vision in sharks is very acute. The last second before a shark attacks, it loses its vision with the nictitating membrane, and relies on other senses. Sharks see about as well as a human looking through a snorkeling mask in the water. A shark’s night vision however, is far better than that of humans. Sharks have an adaptation called tapetum lucidum, which greatly increases their night vision. Guanine crystals present on the shark’s retina causes the light entering the eye to be reflected back through the lens, allowing the eye a second chance to absorb it. This aids the shark a great deal in seeing at night and is also responsible for the eerie glow of their eyes at night. It is thought that sharks do have some form of color vision and it is agreed upon that contrast plays a huge role in vision. Therefore it might be a good idea not to wear shiny jewelry, or bright bathing suits!

The Ampullae of Lorenzini is a sense effective only at close ranges (approximately 4-5 inches). These are tiny pores that dot the snout and head of the shark. The pores are filled with jelly-like sacs that enable the shark to sense electromagnetic fields. Every living organism puts off and electric field. The ampullae detect electrical impulses given off by an animal’s nervous system allowing the shark to find and consume prey items without ever seeing them.

Touch and taste are obviously the senses used at the closest distance, but interestingly enough are nearly synonymous. A shark’s skin is covered with tiny tooth-like structures called dermal denticles. These denticles are connected to "taste buds" and allow the shark to assess a potential food source by tasting it without ever having to bite it. These specialized denticles channel water off the shark’s body making the shark more hydrodynamic. When in the water with or near sharks, a hands-off policy is best. Some divers try to handle more docile species such as white-tip reef sharks, but a good rule of thumb is that no one likes their tail pulled. Sharks have a tongue-like organ called a basihyal. A shark’s basihyal is made mostly of hard cartilage and their taste buds are rather dull.

Most sharks have a basic fusiform or torpedo-like shape. This streamline design with the addition of other external features makes sharks among the most powerful swimmers on the planet. The characteristic and FEARED dorsal fin atop the shark’s back serves as a stabilizer. The side fins, or pectoral fins, are slightly maneuverable helping the shark to steer. The general shape of the pectoral fins actually gives the shark "lift" making swimming easier, just like a jet plane. On the ventral side of the shark both males and females have pelvic fins, that in most species serve little function. The males are readily identified by the presence of claspers, modified fins used for reproduction, and the transfer of specialized cells. Second dorsal fins and anal fins again add stability to the shark. The caudal fins of sharks varies with species, generally speaking most sharks have a heterocercal tail shape that provides maximum thrust. Sharks such as the mako may be able to reach speeds in excess of 80kmph (50mph).

The feared jaws of sharks are full of teeth; each species has teeth adapted to its life style. Some are small bumps, like in the case of the plankton feeders, and some, like the tiger have serrated teeth used for ripping and tearing carcass. Sharks have protrusible jaws that hyperextend to maximize jaw gape. Since prey is swallowed whole, sharks must be able to consume their prey in large quantities.

Sharks are apex predators; they are at the top of the oceanic food web. Some larger sharks prey on smaller shark species, and the diet amongst species deviates. As an apex predator sharks keep other populations in check. Sharks play an important role in ridding populations of decrepit animals, ones that are sick or dying. From a shark’s perspective killing something half-dead is much safer than targeting a healthy animal that will fight back possibly injuring the shark.

Currently humans kill over 100 million sharks each year, while sharks kill less than 10 humans each year. Sharks are killed for sport, for their jaws and teeth, for their meat and fins (shark fin soup), and as bycatch. Jaws and teeth of sharks are items sold to tourists at a cost that does not come near warranting a life. Shark finning is a grotesque practice where sharks are caught in mass quantities. While still alive, fins are cut from the shark, and the living carcass is thrown back to the sea where the shark, unable to move will slowly drown. Bycatch is a problem with most fisheries and sharks like many other animals fall victim to entanglement in nets or long line fishermen.

In Hawaiian culture, an ‘aumakua is a family or personal god, usually a deceased taking on an animal or plant manifestation. It is important that it be understood that an ‘aumakua is reserved for those of Hawaiian ancestry and an ‘aumakua is a single animal, not all animals of a single species. For fishermen, a mano was a common ‘aumakua. In return for protection, the human was expected to care and protect the ‘aumakua. The caretaker of an ‘aumakua was deemed the kahu. In the case of a shark ‘aumakua, the caretaker would be called the kahu mano. Kahu mano would offer fish and ‘awa to their ‘aumakua. Some records show that the mano were stroked and caressed by the kahu mano.

Old Hawaiian records also show gatherings of large shark populations, similar to what is seen in the present off the coasts of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The fins cutting through the surface of the water was deemed "lalani kalalea." Kahu mano, would wade into shallow waters teeming with sharks and be completely undisturbed by the presence of the sharks.

Leiomano describes the tools made from shark teeth. Giant clubs rimmed with teeth of a niuhu (Palau Papa Niho Mano) were used by ali’i as a weapon of war. Other weapons were fashioned into knife-like cutting tools with shark teeth serving as a blade. One variation was teeth lashed onto the knuckles used for hand to hand combat. Sharkskin was also used for the covering of a drum and sometimes as an abrasive surface for sanding wood.

The Hawaiian culture reveres its sharks or mano as ‘aumakua and also as a valuable food and tool making sources. Mano is the general Hawaiian word to describe all shark species. Many Hawaiian Gods were associated with mano:

Kamohoali’i (Moho) – Pele’s older brother who accompanied her from Kahiki to Hawai’i took human form as well as mano and hilu (fish) forms.

Ka’ahupahau – was chiefess of the mano gods at Pu’uloa (Pearl Harbor), she protected O’ahu from mano. She, a red head (‘ehu) and her brother Kahi’uka, were born as humans and later changed into na mano. On one occasion, a girl who had snatched an ‘ilima le from her kahu was dragged under water by sharks and drowned. Ka’ahupahau after witnessing this vowed that na mano would never again attack humans at Pu’uloa.

Kaehuikimano-o-Pu’uloa– A mano god of Puna, Hawai’i born of humans at Panau, Puna. He was named after the ‘ehu of Ka’ahupahau. Kaholia-Kane was reared on a blend of kava and mother’s milk.

Kaholia-Kane – a mano god of Kalaniopu’u, a ruling chief of Hawai’i at the time of Kamehameha. The mano lived at Puhi, Kaua’i in a cave.

Kane’apua – A trickster kupua described variously as a brother of Pele, as a bird brother of "Namaka-o-Kaha’i, as a younger shark brother of Kane and Kanaloa, and as a fish god of Kaunolu, Lanai’i, where a nearby islet is named for him. He angered Kane and Kanaloa by urinating in their water, and they flew away as birds. Wahanui (great mouth), a voyager bound for Kahiki, passed Kaunolu {point and Kane’apua hailed him. Wahanui replied that his canoe was full, but when Kane raised a storm, he took Kane’apua aboard. Kane’apua quieted two kupua hills, Paliuli (dark cliff) and Palikea (white cliff), that clashed together, destroying canoes, and he performed many other feats. On the journey of the Pele family from Kahiki, Pele’s brother Kanohoali’i abandoned Kane’apua on Hihoa Island. Later Pele longed for him and Kanohoali’i steered back to rescue him.

Kawelomahamahai’a – An older brother of Kawelo, who was turned into a shark and was worshipped.

Keali’ikau-o-Ka’u – A shark god who protected the Ka’u people from sharks. He was a young cousin of Pele and the son of Kua. He had an affair with a young human of Waikapuna, Ka’u, and she gave birth to a beneficent green shark.

Kua – A shark god called the king shark of Ka’u and the ancestor of numerous Ka’u folk. With Kaholia-Kane he raised a storm between Kaua’i and O’ahu to prevent the marriage of their divine relative, Pele, and Lohi’au, a mortal. His full name may have been Kua’a-Wakea.

Kuhai‘imoana – A shark god, brother of Pele, who lived at Ka‘ula Islet (near Niihau), where he was left when the Pele family migrated from Kahiki to Hawai’i. He was said to be thirty fathoms long and to be the husband of Ka’ahupahau. He was also called Kuheimoana (Ku following ocean).

Along with the deities, many stories regarding sharks were created in old Hawaii. Sometimes people were referred to as ho’omano comparing they’re ravenous hunger to sharks or even their methods of pursuing women! Many stories and phrases reference sharks; in some the human prevails, but just as often the shark will triumph. In an island community, sharks were ever present and were confronted regularly. Since that time, there has been a paradigm shift in the way most people view sharks.

When a fatal shark attack occurs, the present idea is often to find the shark and kill it, a rather ineffective method as most often only innocent sharks are killed. Sharks don’t feed at regular intervals and some species may go months without a meal. Much can be gained from the rebirth of the Hawaiian culture; there are lessons and knowledge to be gained from their respect for nature. In Old Hawaii a prayer was always necessary before a hunt was begun. Shark hunts were a tradition upheld with culture and respect for the animals. With increasing technology more is being discovered about sharks, even so, very little is known about these archaic creatures. From past to present and on to future, sharks hold a mystique that will forever be feared and revered.

Resources/References:

Borg, Jim, 1993. Tigers of the Sea: Hawaii’s Deadly Sharks, Mutual Publishing, Honolulu, HI.
Green, Jen, 2003. Sharks: The book and CD-ROM that Work Together, Two-Can Publishing, Chanhassen, MN.
Taylor, Leighton, 1993. Sharks of Hawaii: Their Biology and Cultural Significance, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, HI.
Young, David, 1999. Na Mea Makamae: Hawaiian Treasures, Palapala Press, Kailua-Kona, HI.